Vivisection: Progress as Paradigm :: Animals Science Papers

Vivisection: Progress as Paradigm "Progress is an optional goal, not an unconditional commitment, and its tempo has nothing sacred about it. A slower progress in the conquest of disease would not threaten society, but would be threatened by the erosion of those moral values whose loss, possibly caused by the too ruthless pursuit of scientific progress, would make its most dazzling triumphs not worth having." –Hans Jonas, bioethicist, 1969 I. Introduction The debate over animal experimentation for scientific advancement is serious and highly controversial. It brings our assumptions about the value of human life and scientific advancement into question. Analysis of this controversy does not purport any easy solutions: there are many points of view. However, it is apparent that the tones are shifting to entertain alternative methods. In allowing the interests of our own species to override the greater interests of members of other species, can we be equated with racists? Sexists?[1] To oppose the use of live animals in scientific experimentation do we not oppose all cruelty to animals, and should we not all be vegans? Should we not charge congress on all fronts for every connection between us and non-human animals? All of these questions will be touched on in this paper, but I will focus more directly on the vivisection controversy, for which I will borrow the Animal Liberation Front's definition: "Any use of animals in science or re search that exploits or harms them." I will give a brief history institutionalized experimentation and challenge the antagonistic viewpoints presented about the efficacy of the use of live animals in research, and offer some budding alternatives. II. History of Institutionalized Experimentation Experiments involving animals for scientific interests began centuries ago, but became institutionalized with Francois Magendie (1787-1855). Magendie was known as a hardworking and brutal physiologist. Barbara Orlans describes some of his experiments in In the Name of Science: Issues in Responsible Animal Experimentation: "Magendie isolated a section of the dog intestine so that it was attached to the rest of the body only by a single artery and vein. This of course was done without anesthesia. Magendie injected various powerful poisons including prussic acid into the intestinal segment and found that the animal was poisoned just as if the normal connections had been intact. He obtained a similar result by injecting a leg detached except for its crural artery and vein.

How would Xerox define diversity? Essay

Xerox defines diversity as a priceless resource and a key to their success. It more than just race or gender. By incorporating in a company like xerox different cultures and ways of thinking it expands the mind set of the company and leads toward creating innovative solutions and business opportunities (Xerox). How has the definition of diversity changed over the years? We live in a world where, because of the Internet and the Web, we can communicate with someone in Africa or Asia as easily as we can communicate with someone in the office next door. A company like Xerox represents businesses all over the world, and the diversity of its employees is a big plus. Acknowledging our differences and using them as a value-added for any clients needs is one of the keys to a companies success. The economic problems that the world economy is experiencing has only added greater emphasis to our beliefs in the importance of diversity. We are all in this economic situation together. It certainly is not the time to retreat from our strong belief that diverse perspectives are essential to prospering in today’s world. What are the seven reasons why Xerox should be motivated to diversify their workforce? Illustrate how Xerox shows its values workplace diversity. Wider Talent Pool More talent will be employed at Xerox if employees of all cultures and race are hired. More Knowledge Sharing Employees can share cultural traits , market demographics and help develop companies develop robust knowledge management and market intelligence systems. Enhanced Productivity By processing varied skills , competencies and capabilities of different races and cultures, Xerox can increase its productivity worldwide (Xerox). Reduced Discrimination At Xerox woman and minorities make up for 52% of the workforce and 42.5% of Xerox senior executives are women or people of color or both (Xerox).

Easements Land Law Essay

In the past, English law has been underpinned by a strong and generally unifying desire to protect the rights of persons who could demonstrate a long established de facto enjoyment of land. Indeed, the Prescription Act 1832 legislatively entrenched prescription, and in particular, prescriptive easements. The underlying assumption was that the principle of prescription was necessary to reconcile the conflicting interests of landowners The basis of prescription is that if long enjoyment of a lawful right is shown, the courts will uphold the right by presuming it had a lawful origin. There are three types of prescription, namely, prescription at common law, prescription under the doctrine of lost modern grant and prescription under the Prescription act 1832. The following document will discuss the current short comings of the law of acquisition of easements by prescription and provide detailed study of recommended reforms. The first area to discuss is the acquisition of easements by prescription at common law. To acquire an easement under common law, the claimant has to show that the easement has been enjoyed not just for a long period of time but since time immemorial, that is, since 1189. One of the first identified issues with acquisition under common law was the idea of time immemorial, the issue arose in Bryant v Foot , where a rector tried to establish a claim to a fee for marriages performed in his parish church. Early use was proved but it was held that the fee of 13 shillings could not have been so high in 1189 and therefore the right could not have existed since time immemorial. The presumption of time immemorial can be rebutted by the owner of the allegedly servient land demonstrating that this was not infact the case. This was demonstrated in the case of Duke of Norfolk v Arbuthnot where a claim to prescription failed upon proof that the church in question had been built around 1380 and therefore, even though the right had existed for centuries, it had not existed since 1189. The courts later decided to use the idea of living memory, which later became 20 years. However it has been generally assumed that the ancient common law principle nowadays adds nothing to the other grounds of prescriptive claims as it is virtually impossible to make a successful claim to a prescriptive right at common law. The common law principle of prescriptive acquisition has no place in the modern times. The doctrine of lost modern grant was â€Å"developed because of unsatisfactory nature of common law prescription†. As it was difficult to that a right has been exercised since 1189, the law allowed a much easier test to be applied. Claims are based on a legal fiction which suggests that a grant had been made at one time but the grant had been lost. In Tehidy Minerals Ltd v Norman , it was said that the legal fiction would be adopted â€Å"where there has been upwards of 20 years† uninterrupted enjoyment of an easement, such enjoyment having the necessary qualities to fulfil the requirements of prescription. Evidence to raise the presumption must be stronger than that required for prescription at common law, and the fiction can only be relied upon if the claim fails at common law. The current problems with the law of lost modern grant are that the presumption of a grant having existed is strong as such that it cannot be rebutted by proof positive that no grant was made. It was hard to persuade Juries to make the presumption under lost modern grant that a grant had existed, even though there was sufficient evidence to prove that it could not have. The act was passed to remedy the situation, As Thesiger J explained in Sturges v Bridgman, â€Å"The act fixes periods for the acquisition of easments, but it does not alter the character of easements or of the user or enjoyment by which they are acquired†. The main intention behind its drafting was to shorten the time of prescription in certain cases. It has been castigated as â€Å"one of the worst drafted acts on the Statute book†. The act is intended to supplement, rather than displace, the other grounds of prescription. It also has been criticised for being overly complex. Various shortcomings of the act have been outlined in cases and by critics. One of the outlined flaws is that the period of 20 years to find a prescriptive right under the act has to be the 20 years next before action b rought. Therefore the period must be calculated back from â€Å"some suit or action wherein the claim or matter to which such right may relate shall have been or shall be brought into question† . This means that even though the right may have been enjoyed for the past 80 years, the claim will fail unless the last 20 years immediately before the action have been â€Å"without interruption†. The claim will also fail if both tenements had been owned or occupied by the same person anytime immediately before the action. The minimum period of 20 years has to be â€Å"next before action† and without interruption. If the interruption originated 19 years and one day prior to the action, the year’s interruption would not be completed until one day after 20 years. If the dominant owner did not make his claim before the last day of the year he would be too late. As on the next day the fatal period on one year’s interruption would be complete, thus he only has one day only in which to make his claim. The use of vague vocabulary such as the term â€Å"interruption† has amounted to masses of criticisms. Interruption has a special meaning for the purposes of prescription act, it says that even when there is some hostile obstruction, it will not amount to an interruption unless and until the claimant has acquiesced in the obstruction for one year after becoming aware of it and knowing who was responsible for it. Reforms One of the suggested reforms by the Law commission was to â€Å"abolish prescriptive acquisition with prospective effect†. The arguments presented in favour of abolishing prescriptive acquisition do hold some influence. It has been long contended that there is no longer nay moral justification for the prescription of easements. Is it fair to take unfair advantage of a â€Å"good neighbourly† attitude? Prescriptive acquisition allows the dominant owner to get something in exchange for nothing, the owner of the servient land is in no way compensated. For some Law reform parties abolishment of Law of Prescription may be the easiest and safest method of restoring certainty to the law, however to point to the complexity of the law does not address the fundamental issue as to whether prescription in some form is still necessary in land law. Abolishing prescription will not resolve all problems posed by prescriptive easements. There are other possibilities of reform rather than complete abolishment, one of them being abolition being subject to transitional provisions through the land registration system, a transitional provisions period could be set which would allow people who had acquired a prescriptive easement to register it. There is a clear advantage to this, Landowners are placed on notice that they are required to take steps to secure their rights or loose them altogether. In this way, after a specified time limit there is the chance of completely abolishing the acquisition of easements by prescription. It is also likely that the abolition of prescriptive easements would create a legal vacuum in respect to prospective acquisition by prescription. As pointed out earlier, the law of prescription was important for long established de facto users when there was no other way of acquiring an easement, particularly when the servient owner was unwilling to negotiate a bargain for easement rights. Yet the alleged easement served and continued to serve a practical or economic purpose for the dominant owner. Indeed, it was unlikely that a dominant owner would claim an easement by prescription for theoretical or historical reasons only. The claim based on retrospective long user was inextricably intertwined with present value. As English Land Law is going through its transition from the period of possession to registration it is unlikely that the law of prescription will be kept in its current form. In 1998, the Law Commission and H M L Registry considered that far reaching action was necessary. The question will be whether to modify prescription or abolish it altogether, it will depend upon whether long established de facto enjoyment can be accommodated within a system where the frame of reference is registration and the major goal is the protection of bona fide purchasers. Attempts have been made to encounter these issues in the Land Registration Act 2002 and The Commons Act 2006.

Mathematical Theory of Communication on Art

Shannon and Weaver’s Mathematical Theory of Communication is probably the most influential of all communication models; and has been used as a guide from which many contemporary communication theories have emerged. The theory’s large influence on communication studies has also led some to claim that the theory is widely applicable to human communication. In this essay, I will be analyzing how artworks are used to communicate messages and ideas to the general audience with the use of this theory. For the first part, I will briefly introduce the theory as a general entity. I will follow with my analysis.The Mathematical Theory of Communication The Mathematical Theory of Communication, hereinafter be referred to as the Mathematical Model, consists of several elements. The first five elements namely, Information Source, Transmitter, Channel, Receiver and Destination are all connected in a linear fashion. The sixth element, Noise Source, is connected to the Channel. The mode l is illustrated below (Figure 1). Figure 1: Mathematical Theory of Communication The Information Source is what produces the message. A Transmitter encodes the message into a signal and is passed through a Channel.The Receiver then decodes a message from the signal and is passed to the Destination. Noise Source is anything added to the signal that is not intended by the Information Source and distorts the message. Using this model, there are many ways an artwork can communicate a message. The first instance is when an artwork is both the Information Source and Transmitter and the audience the Destination and Receiver. In the second instance the artist is the Information Source, the artwork the Channel and the audience, again, the Destination.The third instance is when an arts manager is placed into the equation. The Artwork and Audience The first instance is probably the ‘cleanest’ of the three ways proposed, involving two parties, the artwork and the audience. A paint ing hung on the wall at a gallery catches the eye of an audience member. The audience member proceeds to stand in front of the painting and attempts to analyze the painting’s message or perhaps just marvel at its brilliance. In this case, the simplistic Mathematical Model can then be further simplified to just include just the Information Source, Noise and Destination.Noise in this scenario may include the inappropriate lighting in the gallery, noisy children running around in the gallery or even the way the painting is presented. All of the above would diminish the audience’s ability to interpret the artwork’s message. The underlying assumption here is that the artist has completely divorced himself from the artwork and does not care how the audience interprets his art. However some artist do care about the message being send across. The Artist The second instance brings in the ‘third’ party, the artist.Here the artist is the Information Source and Transmitter who uses his artwork to communicate ideas. This artwork becomes the Channel of communication. Now Noise has the potential to disturb the message at two points, one between the Transmitter to the Channel, and the other from Channel to Receiver. The shape of Mathematical Model thus becomes slightly irrelevant, although the linearity of the model stays in contact. Noise can happens in the first point when the artist is unable to materialize fully his concepts. This could be due to the lack of funds or the inability to acquire certain materials the artist hopes to use.The message is then compromised. The second point occurs when the audience is unable to interpret correctly what the artist is trying to convey. There are many communication theories that elaborate on this, however for the purposes of this essay I will elaborate on ‘preconceived notion’ and ‘ideological differences’. Preconceived notions could come in many forms, for instance when one first views Damien Hirst’s The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, one might assume the glass tank was an thoughtless choice when in actuality there was a certain artistic element to it.Yet such a misunderstanding does not affect the overall message of Hirst’s work. However an ideological difference, could affect greatly the message intended. The list of ideological differences is endless, but one of the most prominent ideological different that still persists in this century is religion. To one the Balinese Dances may have religious significance however to another who is a non-believer, such dances might just be a work of art with culture as the theme. In addition, the masks used in such dances might become a sacred object but to another it might be nothing more than a work of art.The time and purpose of an artwork might also create disparity in the understanding of the message. During the 16th century, the art was used to propaganda the Ch ristian faith, which was competing for the spiritual allegiance of masses with the other religious fractions in Europe. Now however, an art lover would just be inspired at the sheer brilliance of the artwork, eliminating the evangelical purpose. Arts Manager The third instance introduces a ‘fourth’ party to the equation, the arts manager. Communicating art, as illustrated above, is no easy task.One might need to transcend boundaries and ideologies in order to fully understand the message of the artwork. The arts manager can be placed in numerous positions in the Mathematical Model. In one instance the arts manager might elongate the communication chain. The artist (Information Source) might communicate to the Arts Manager (Receiver). The Arts Manager, now the Information Source, will then communicate to the Audience who becomes the second Receiver. This elongated chain would then create more opportunities for Noise to develop. The arts manager may also assume the role o f the Channel.Here the artist or artwork will be the information source. In this model, if related back to the original Mathematical Model implies that the arts manager (Channel) is the sole producer of Noise, if any. Conclusion Ultimately when communicating, the ideal circumstance would arise if the message to be conveyed is transmitted and understood in its entirety. Thus is it the job of an arts manager to reduce Noise so that the artist is able to convey his message? Or is it the artist job to better his craft if he wants to convey the message? With that said, is Noise necessarily always negative?What if the Noise was intended? In the experimental exhibitions entitled Not Against Interpretation, the Singapore Art Museum decided to challenge the concept of interpretation by allowing several curators to interpret the same artworks to the audience. The audience can then decide which interpretation to accept. The philosophy behind this is to exploit the ‘openness’ of co ntemporary art and also provide an opportunity to engage with people from varied backgrounds. Bibliography Agata, T. & Okada, T. â€Å"How does information about creative process affect audience appreciation of artwork? Proceedings of the Twenty-eighth Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (2006): 949-954. Print Berger, John. Ways of Seeing. London: Penguin, 2008. Print. Dannatt, Adrian. † Life’s Like This Then It Stops† Flash Art. Web. 24 Apr. 2012. . Elsen, Albert E. Purpose of Art An Introduction to the History and Appreciation of Art Fourth Edition. USA; Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. , 1981. Fiske, John. Introduction to Communication Studies. London: Routledge, 1990. Print. Introduction to Bali: Art Ritual Performance. Dir.Deborah Clearwaters. Asian Art Museum’s Education and Public Programs, 2011. Film. Newton, Eric. â€Å"Art as Communication. † British Journal of Aesthetics 1. 2 (1961): 71-85. Print. Pang, Ruben. Personal intervi ew. 5 April. 2012. Roszak, Theodore. The Cult of Information: The Folklore of Computers and the True Art of Thinking. New York: Pantheon, 1986. Print. Shannon, Claude E. and Warren Weaver. â€Å"The Mathematical Theory of Communication. † Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1949. Tinggal, Zainal Abiddin. The Dances of ASEAN. Brunei Darussalam: ASEAN Committee on Culture and Information, 1998. Print. ——————————————- [ 1 ]. John Fiske, â€Å"Introduction to Communication Studies† (1990) Pg 6. [ 2 ]. Ibid. [ 3 ]. The essay revolves around the assumption that artists use art as a communicative device to express emotions and ideas. Eric Newton further elaborates this idea in his paper †Art as Communication†. [ 4 ]. To better illustrate the Mathematical Model assume a telephone conversation. In such a case the Channel is the wire and the signal is the ele ctrical wire in it. The telephone handsets are the Transmitter and Receiver, and the people using those handsets are the Information Source and Destination.Noise Source in this instance could be distortion of sound in the telephone wire due to various reasons. [ 5 ]. Many critics have condemned Shannon and Weaver’s theory to be overly simplicity. One such critic, Theodore Roszak, agues in his book â€Å"The Cult of Information† that the model has no mechanism for distinguishing important ideas from pure non-sense. [ 6 ]. Although the article â€Å"How does Information about Creative Process Affect Audience Appreciation of Artwork? † does not provide conclusive findings, the study conducted does however provide relevant insight with regards to forming curatorial concepts. 7 ]. In the interview conducted on 5th April 2012, Ruben Pang, a local painter, reveals that he prefers that his artworks connect with the audience on their own accord. And in his analogy  "Much to the same degree as a love song with generic lyrics. The audience likes the song because they are deluded that it relates to them when in actual fact the love song might be about a particular girl. However when the audience finds out that the love song is indeed about a particular girl, the lost interest in the song. † [ 8 ]. The Propeller Group, a team made of three video artists, made a video entitled ‘Uh! to communicate the ideas of freedom of expression in present day Vietnam. For an online interview with the Propeller Group please refer to http://is. asia-city. com/events/article/60-seconds-propeller-group. [ 9 ]. After publishing the original theory in the The Bell System Technical Journal, Shannon and Weaver became that Noise could happen at other points besides the Channel. Another theory, the Information Theory was thus conceived. [ 10 ]. In an interview with Adrian Dannatt, Hirst mentions his infatuation with glass and thus the continuous use of glass i n many of his other works. 11 ]. The Balinese dances were usually performed in temples for scared rituals to local deities associated with nature and ancestry. However in recent years, due to globalization and ASEAN’s push for cultural development and education, such dances have travelled around the world. (Introduction to Bali: Art Ritual Performances, 2011)(Tinggal, 1998) [ 12 ]. The Balinese believe the masks, when carved properly and are consecrated, becomes a vessel for a deity. In turn, the mask becomes a protective guardian and powerful sacred force when worn during a dance. Introduction to Bali: Art Ritual Performances, 2011)(Tinggal, 1998) [ 13 ]. Albert E. Elsen â€Å"Purpose of Art: An Introduction to the History and Appreciation of Art† (1981). [ 14 ]. Not Against Interpretation is an experimental platform to nurture an appreciation for contemporary art. The first artwork to be presented under this series is A Flog of Birdies by Singaporean artists Jason Li m and Vincent Leow. The work was an artistic collaboration between them as part of UTOPIA (United Together to Organise and Produce Interesting Art).

Fast Food vesus Home Cooked Food Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Fast Food vesus Home Cooked Food - Essay Example The fact of the matter remains that the fast food culture has brought about a paradigm shift, which is incremental yet quite revealing in the most basic sense, and much thought and consideration needs to be paid towards such ranks as far as the future undertakings of the society are concerned. One of the most attractive things about fast food is its convenience. A person can walk into a fast food store, or take their car through a drive through fast food outlet and, within five minutes they can have their hot, strong tasting meal ready for them to eat. As a nation, people are generally more busy today than ever before, at least in terms of the speed of their lives. As people are constantly rushing around from one place to another, it makes sense that fast food would be more popular. People who work long hours may not find time to cook a proper meal at home, whereas they can visit a fast food store easily between their other tasks of the day. Furthermore, fast food is convenient as there are so many outlets. Where ever a person is, they usually aren’t far from a fast food restaurant or drive through. Conversely, home cooked food takes time to prepare. Cooking a meal can be time consuming, as can the shopping for ingredients before the actual cooking commences. Also, some ingredients may not be available in one shop and several shops may need to be visited in order to gather all the required ingredients. This, of course, adds to the time taken to prepare the home cooked meal. Unless a person employs a personal chef in their home, preparing a meal at home is not as convenient as a fast food (Myers). A similarity between home cooked food and fast food is that, depending on the individual’s preferences, both can taste very nice and can be satisfying to eat. However, scientists have revealed that the high sugar and salt content in fast food can actually

Suicide among young men in the United Kingdom in related to the press Research Paper

Suicide among young men in the United Kingdom in related to the press - Research Paper Example Social phenomenon of various kinds is analysed using evidence to back up claims. Evidence gathering for such purposes needs to be traced out meticulously in order to create a true reflection of the society and its problems. This paper attempts to analyse the social problem of suicide in Great Britain in order to ascertain a particular direction for research. Overlying trends will be identified and any anomalies in social behaviour will be segregated. These social anomalies will be investigated later as â€Å"major memoirs† while this â€Å"minor memoir† will delineate the various resources that could be used to research the identified issue. Moreover, the credibility, relevance and suitability of the sources will be established to present a strong foundation for research. Social Problems Social problems can be seen as any social conditions that produce harm to any segment of the society’s population. Moreover, social problems can also represent various social con ditions and acts that may violate a society’s norms and values. (Eitzen et al., 2009) Social problems can be produced by social psychological behaviour or through implications of the social structure. (Beeghley, 2000) For example if a person is a drug addict then there could be multiple causes for it. One reason could be that the person in question has friends or other social influences that encourage the use of drugs. This reason would constitute the social psychological aspect of the explanation. Another reason could be that the person in question is unemployed, depressed or otherwise repressed by social institutions to an extent that he feels that drug use is the only solution. Such an explanation would constitute a social structural explanation of the problem. Social problems can proliferate if portrayed in such light. Suicide: Social Problem or Private Problem Suicide can be seen as any act initiated by a human being to end his or her own life with complete knowledge and established intent. (Hawton & van Heeringen, 2009) Various reasons can be attributed to suicide including social, biological and other explanations. Perhaps the most significant work on suicide was produced by Emile Durkheim in analysing suicide using scientific methods. However there has been rampant debate regarding the nature of suicide as a personal or as a social problem. The act of taking one’s own life is nonetheless a purely personal problem. The lack of social commentary on any issue tends to make such issues personal. Previously suicide was treated as a purely personal problem. However media spotlight on the issue aided in the transformation of suicide into a social problem in recent years. (Samaritans, 2011) In order to ground things in more concrete reason it is best to analyse the statistics for suicide to form a clearer picture. Suicidal Trends in Great Britain The suicide rates in Great Britain must be traced from official sources in order to guarantee their c redibility. Moreover, suicide rates need to be adjusted for their consistency with population growth. As population levels grow each year, the suicide rates must reflect this growth or suicide rates would seem to keep decreasing each year. The government of Great Britain compiles statistics for suicide as well as other such issues each year. These statistics are available on the official statistics portal of the government better known as the Office for National

Significance of Foucault in the Study of Sexuality Essay

Significance of Foucault in the Study of Sexuality - Essay Example In earlier days, supreme people had the right of life, as well as death over his subjects. This "right of life" was, in reality, a "right of death." The supremacy practiced by the supreme people was merely a matter of deciding whether a person would be killed or not (Foucault, 1978). In general, sovereign power executed itself as a form of "inference": it consisted of the authority to take things such as life, property, privileges and taxes away from its subjects. Today, the author suggests, power no longer affirms itself as an inference, but as a "right of death" (Foucault, 1978). The authority has power over life via the deaths that it can sway. The key interest of power, these days, is in life, and how to protect, expand and enhance it. Warfare is still waged, but they are not waged in support of the "right of death" of some supreme people, but are instead waged to guarantee a better means of life for humanity. As warfare has become bloodier, the death punishment has become less o ften. Also, while the death punishment was once a resentful act of obliteration, today it is perceived as a safeguard, as a means of eradicating a threat to society. Supremacy is now exercised solely over life and is practiced either to promote life or to prohibit it. Above any other element, Foucault perceives bio-power as liable for the rise of capitalism. Humanity came to be perceived as a vital factor in politics and history. How people live became an aspect of knowledge and power. The law became less concentrated in prohibiting and disbanding, and became more concerned in optimizing and normalizing the conditions of human life. Successfully, the new-fangled power over life that the author discusses signified that humanity fell under the control of politics. The first part of part V of this volume compares two diverse applications of power: the "power over life" and "right of death". The second part of part V of this volume shows why, with the increase of bio-power, sexuality ha s turned into such a vital concept to humanity. Comprehending the difference between the power over life and right of death will be much easier if individuals leave ethical judgments aside (Foucault, 1978). Instead of trying to consider which one is "better," people should simply accept that they are diverse and endeavor to emphasize the importance of these differences. In general, humans may distinguish power over life from the right of death by arguing that the latter is a harmful kind of power and the former is an encouraging form of power. During the era of complete monarchies (France’